Immune responses to tumor-associated antigens (TAs) are often detectable in tumor-bearing
hosts, but they fail to eliminate malignant cells or prevent the development of metastases.
Patients with cancer generate robust immune responses to infectious agents (bacteria and
viruses) perceived as a “danger signal” but only ineffective weak responses to TAs, which
are considered as “self.” This fundamental difference in responses to self versus nonself is
further magnified by the ability of tumors to subvert the host immune system. Tumors induce …